The International Space Station (ISS) is an internationally developed research facility currently being assembled The Assembly of the International Space Station is a major aerospace engineering endeavour currently being conducted in Low Earth orbit by a consortium of governmental and inter-governmental space agencies in Low Earth Orbit A low Earth orbit is generally defined as an orbit within the locus extending from the Earth’s surface up to an altitude of 2,000 km. Given the rapid orbital decay of objects below approximately 200 km, the commonly accepted definition for LEO is between 160 - 2,000 km (100 - 1,240 miles) above the Earth's surface. On-orbit construction of the station began in 1998 and is scheduled to be completed by 2011, with operations continuing until at least 2015.[6] The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye,[7] and, as of 2009[update], is the largest artificial satellite in Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun. It is the fifth largest of the eight planets in the solar system, and the largest of the terrestrial planets in the Solar System in terms of diameter, mass and density. It is also referred to as the World, the Blue Planet,[note 3] and Terra.[note 4] orbit, with a mass larger than that of any previous space station A space station is an artificial structure designed for humans to live in outer space. To date, only low earth orbital stations have been implemented, otherwise known as orbital stations. A space station is distinguished from other manned spacecraft by its lack of major propulsion or landing facilities—instead, other vehicles are used as.[8] The ISS serves as a long-term research laboratory in space, with experiments in fields including biology Biology is the natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. The term biology in its modern sense appears to have been introduced independently by Karl Friedrich Burdach (1800), Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (Biologie oder, human biology Human biology is an interdisciplinary academic field of biology, biological anthropology, nutrition and medicine which focuses on humans; it is closely related to primate biology, and a number of other fields. The human biology major was founded in 1970 at Stanford University, physics Physics is a natural science; it is the study of matter and its motion through spacetime and all that derives from these, such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the world and universe behave, astronomy Astronomy (from the Greek words astron , "star" and -nomy from nomos (νόμος), "law") is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics, and meteorology Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting (in contrast with climatology). Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the eighteenth century. The nineteenth century saw breakthroughs occur after observing being carried out daily in the station's microgravity A micro-g environment is one where the acceleration induced by gravity has little or no measurable effect, gravity itself does not change. The only three methods of creating a micro-g environment are to travel far enough into deep space so as to reduce the effect of gravity by attenuation, by falling, and by orbiting a planet. The terms environment.[9][10][11] The station also provides a safe testing location for efficient, reliable spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite and the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System. The average centre-to-centre distance from the Earth to the Moon is 384,403 kilometres , about thirty times the diameter of the Earth. The common centre of mass of the system (the barycentre) is located at about 1,700 kilometres (1,100 mi)—a quarter and Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. It is also referred to as the "Red Planet" because of its reddish appearance, due to iron oxide prevalent on its surface.[12] The ISS and its experiments are operated by long-duration Expedition crews, with the station being continuously staffed since the first resident crew, Expedition 1 The International Space Station received its first resident crew on November 2, 2000. The three-member Expedition 1 crew successfully launched October 31, 2000 atop a Soyuz-U rocket on Soyuz TM-31 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Their four-month tour aboard the ISS officially ended on March 18, 2001. The Expedition 1 crew returned home, arrived on 2 November 2000. This has provided an uninterrupted human presence in space for the last 9 years and 18 days.[13] As of 11 October 2009)[update], the crew of Expedition 21 Expedition 21 is the 21st long-crew-flight of the International Space Station . This expedition began on September 30, 2009. Frank de Winne is the first ESA astronaut to command a space mission is aboard.[14]
The station represents a union of several space station projects including the US Space Station Freedom Space Station Freedom was the name given to NASA's project to construct a permanently manned Earth-orbiting space station. Although approved by then-president Ronald Reagan and announced in the 1984 State of the Union Address, Freedom was never constructed or completed as originally designed, and after several cutbacks, the remnants of the project, the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 Mir-2 was a space station project begun in February 1976. Some of the modules built for Mir-2 have been incorporated into the International Space Station, the European Columbus Columbus is a science laboratory that is part of the International Space Station and is the largest single contribution to the ISS made by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japanese Kibō The Japanese Experiment Module (Japanese: Kibō きぼう, Hope) is a Japanese science module for the International Space Station (ISS) developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module. The first two pieces of the module were launched on space shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124. The third and final components were launched on STS-127.[15][16] Budget issues with each station, however, led to the separate projects being merged into a single multi-national space station.[15] The ISS project began in 1994 with the Shuttle-Mir programme The Shuttle–Mir Program was a collaborative space program between Russia and the United States, which involved American Space Shuttles visiting the Russian space station Mir, Russian cosmonauts flying on the shuttle and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft to engage in long-duration expeditions aboard Mir,[17] and the first module of the station, Zarya Zarya , also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (from the Russian "Функционально-грузовой блок", Funktsionalno-gruzovoy blok or ФГБ), was the first module of the International Space Station to be launched. The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance to the ISS during the, was launched in 1998 by Russia.[15] Assembly The Assembly of the International Space Station is a major aerospace engineering endeavour currently being conducted in Low Earth orbit by a consortium of governmental and inter-governmental space agencies has been ongoing ever since, with a complex of pressurised modules, external trusses and other components being launched by US Space Shuttles The Space Shuttle, part of the Space Transportation System , is a spacecraft operated by NASA for orbital human spaceflight missions. It began operations in the 1980s and is scheduled to be retired from service in 2010 after 134 launches. Major missions have included launching numerous satellites and interplanetary probes, conducting space science, Russian Proton rockets Proton (formal designation: UR-500) is an expendable launch system used for both commercial and Russian government space launches. The first Proton rocket was launched in 1965 and the launch system is still in use as of 2009, which makes it one of the most successful heavy boosters in the history of spaceflight. All Protons are built at the and Russian Soyuz rockets Soyuz is a family of expendable launch systems developed by OKB-1, and manufactured by TsSKB-Progress in Samara, Russia. They are used as the launcher for the manned Soyuz spacecraft as part of the Soyuz program, as well as to launch unmanned Progress supply spacecraft to the International Space Station and for commercial launches marketed and.[16] As of November 2009[update], the station consists of eleven pressurised modules and an extensive Integrated Truss Structure The Integrated Truss Structure forms the backbone of the International Space Station, with mountings for unpressurized logistics carriers, radiators, solar arrays, and other equipment (ITS). Power is provided The electrical system of the International Space Station is a critical resource for the International Space Station because it allows the crew to live comfortably, to safely operate the station, and to perform scientific experiments. The ISS electrical system uses solar cells to directly convert sunlight to electricity. Large numbers of cells are by sixteen large solar arrays A photovoltaic array is a linked collection of photovoltaic modules, which are in turn made of multiple interconnected solar cells. The cells convert solar energy into direct current electricity via the photovoltaic effect. The power that one module can produce is seldom enough to meet requirements of a home or a business, so the modules are mounted on the external truss, in addition to four smaller arrays on Russian modules.[18] The station is maintained at an orbit In astrodynamics orbital station-keeping is a term used to describe a particular set of orbital maneuvers used to keep a spacecraft in assigned orbit, either low earth orbit , or geostationary orbit (GEO). It is especially important for satellite communications systems since maintaining proper satellite position over long periods of time is between 278 km (173 mi) and 460 km (286 mi) altitude, and travels at an average speed of 27,724 kilometres (17,227 mi) per hour, completing 15.7 orbits In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body, for example the gravitational orbit of a planet around a star per day.[19]
The ISS is operated as a joint project between the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program. NASA was established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The agency became operational on (NASA), the Russian Federal Space Agency The Russian Federal Space Agency , commonly entitled Roscosmos (Роскосмос Roskosmos) and abbreviated as FKA (ФКА) and RKA (РКА), is the government agency responsible for the Russian space science programme and general aerospace research. It was previously the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (Russian: Российское авиац (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency , or JAXA, is Japan's national aerospace agency. JAXA was formed on October 1, 2003, as an Independent Administrative Institution through the merger of three previously independent organizations. JAXA is responsible for research, development and launch of satellites into orbit, and is fundamentally involved (JAXA), the Canadian Space Agency The Canadian Space Agency is the Canadian government space agency responsible for Canada's space program. It was established in March 1989 by the Canadian Space Agency Act and sanctioned in December 1990. The Chief Executive Officer of the agency is the President who reports to the Minister of Industry (CSA) and the European Space Agency The European Space Agency , established in 1975, is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space, currently with 18 member states. Headquartered in Paris, ESA has a staff of more than 2,000 with an annual budget of about €3.6 billion in 2009 (ESA).[20] Ownership and utilisation of the station is set out via several intergovernmental treaties and agreements,[21] with Russia retaining full ownership of its own modules The Russian Orbital Segment is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed in Russia and operated by the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roskosmos),[22] and the rest of the station being allocated between the other international partners.[21] The cost of the station project has been estimated by ESA as €100 billion over a course of 30 years,[23] although cost estimates vary between US$ The United States dollar is the unit of currency of the United States. The U.S. dollar is normally abbreviated as the dollar sign, $, or as USD or US$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies and from others that use the $ symbol. It is divided into 100 cents (200 half-cents prior to 1857)35 billion and US$160 billion, making the ISS the most expensive object ever constructed This is a list of the world's most expensive single objects. The figures below represent the estimated cost to build these objects, not taking into account inflation. This list is not limited to objects of commercial use. It is for the sole purpose of identifying expensive man-made objects and the respective economic costs involved in building.[24] This large cost has meant that the ISS programme has been the target of various criticisms over its financing, research capabilities and technical design.[25]
The various sections of the station are controlled by several mission control centres on the ground, including MCC-H NASA's Mission Control Center , also known by its callsign, Houston, at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, in Houston, Texas manages all manned space flight of NASA, including the U.S. portions of the International Space Station (ISS). From the moment a spacecraft clears its launch tower until it lands back on earth, it is in the hands of Mission, TsUP A Mission Control Center is an entity that manages aerospace vehicle flights. The MCC is often part of a national aerospace agency or a large aerospace company. There are several such national agencies in the world, the top four being:, Col-CC The Columbus Control Centre is the Mission Control Center which is used to control the European Columbus research laboratory, which is part of the International Space Station . The control centre is located at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) facility in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany. The centre is operated by the DLR, under contract from, ATV-CC The Automated Transfer Vehicle or ATV is an expendable, unmanned resupply spacecraft developed by the European Space Agency . ATVs are designed to supply the International Space Station (ISS) with propellant, water, air, payload and experiments. In addition, ATVs can reboost the station into a higher orbit, JEM-CC A Mission Control Center is an entity that manages aerospace vehicle flights. The MCC is often part of a national aerospace agency or a large aerospace company. There are several such national agencies in the world, the top four being:, HTV-CC A Mission Control Center is an entity that manages aerospace vehicle flights. The MCC is often part of a national aerospace agency or a large aerospace company. There are several such national agencies in the world, the top four being: and MSS-CC A Mission Control Center is an entity that manages aerospace vehicle flights. The MCC is often part of a national aerospace agency or a large aerospace company. There are several such national agencies in the world, the top four being:.[26] The station is serviced by a wide variety of manned and unmanned spacecraft, including the Soyuz Soyuz ; English: Union) is a series of spacecraft designed for the Soviet space program by the Korolyov Design Bureau. The Soyuz succeeded the Voskhod spacecraft and was originally built as part of the Soviet Manned Lunar program. The first unmanned Soyuz mission was launched November 28, 1966; the first Soyuz mission with a crew (Soyuz 1) was spacecraft, Progress The Progress is a Russian expendable freighter spacecraft. The spacecraft is an unmanned resupply spacecraft during its flight but upon docking with a space station it allows astronauts inside, hence it is classified manned by the manufacturer. It was derived from the Soyuz spacecraft, and is launched with the Soyuz rocket. It is currently used to spacecraft, Space Shuttle, Automated Transfer Vehicle The Automated Transfer Vehicle or ATV is an expendable, unmanned resupply spacecraft developed by the European Space Agency . ATVs are designed to supply the International Space Station (ISS) with propellant, water, air, payload and experiments. In addition, ATVs can reboost the station into a higher orbit, and H-II Transfer Vehicle The H-II Transfer Vehicle is a unmanned resupply spacecraft to resupply the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) and the rest of the International Space Station (ISS). The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency(JAXA) has been working on the design since the early 1990s. Originally intended to be launched in 2001, The first mission is scheduled on,[26] and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations This is a list of visitors to the International Space Station in alphabetical order. Station crew names are in bold. The suffix refers to the individual's number of ISS visits, not his or her total number of space flights. Entries without a flag symbol indicate that the person was an American citizen at launch.[8]
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The Associated Press
KOROLYOV, Russia Soyuz craft carrying Canadian circus billionaire docks with International Space Station .
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STS 100 ISS As Seen From Endeavor STS 108 iss cross Eyed Pair STS 115 International Space Station > Large 10 meg bmp here
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hu, 05 Nov 2009 15:56:33 GM
This most recent mission was Ms. Payette's second trip to . space. . She has logged more than 25 days in . space. . On her most recent mission, Ms. Payette joined Dr. Robert Thirsk on the . International Space Station. , the first time in history ...
Q. I understand it is going to be used to conduct experipments.but is all the cost for the space program,worth it?
Asked by cocoabear - Fri Oct 26 13:19:52 2007 - - 11 Answers - 0 Comments
A. Looking at ISS from a cost-benefit perspective, it is probably the least effective space project in history, due to both it's high cost and questionable scientific value. The projected final cost of ISS is over $100 billion. It will eventually return some useful data on the long term effects of spaceflight on the human body, but it isn't a useful platform for scientific research in many other fields. In comparison, the Mars rovers cost $1 billion, and have been exploring the surface of Mars for nearly 4 years, making major discoveries as to past water and vulcanism on Mars, and it's geology and meteorology. So, strictly from the cost-benefit perspective -- ignoring the unquantifiable considerations of national pride and human desire to… [cont.]
Answered by Dave - Fri Oct 26 14:51:08 2007
